Globalization refers to the dynamic process through which countries and regions worldwide form interdependence and deep integration by continuously strengthening connections and interactions across economic, political, cultural, and social spheres. To this day, globalization has exerted and continues to exert significant influence on human society. When, then, did globalization originate? One narrative identifies Christopher Columbus’s landing in the Americas in 1492 as the beginning of interconnected human civilization and the start of globalization. In reality, as early as 138 BCE, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to pioneer routes to the Western Regions, initiating the first systematic dialogue of civilization in human history. Starting in 1405, Zheng He’s fleet embarked on seven voyages, establishing a trade network spanning the Indian Ocean. Through the Overland and Maritime Silk Roads, ancient China disseminated advanced technologies to South Asia, Central Asia, West Asia, Africa, and even Europe. It broadly spread Chinese philosophies and social systems through material exchanges, commodity circulation, and cultural interactions, building a multidimensional network for mutual learning among Asian, African, and European civilizations. Ancient China thus nurtured and propelled the launch of globalization, stepping onto this grand stage with its tremendous strength at the earliest dawn of this global phenomenon.

Four Great Inventions: Technological Catalyst for a Leap in Global Civilization

Papermaking, gunpowder, printing, and the compass—ancient China’s world-renowned Four Great Inventions—spread to East Asia, South Asia, and Central Asia via the Silk Roads, and later reached Europe through Arab traders and Mongol western expeditions, playing pivotal roles in the Renaissance, Reformation and other transformative movements. Their dissemination directly reshaped the trajectory of world history.

Papermaking technology, invented in the Western Han Dynasty, utilized materials such as hemp and silk floss, yet the paper produced then was coarse in texture. In 105, Cai Lun of the Eastern Han Dynasty refined the papermaking process, creating lightweight and durable “Cai Hou Paper.” This innovation gradually replaced bamboo slips and silk as the primary medium for cultural dissemination. During the Tang Dynasty, Japan acquired China’s papermaking techniques through diplomatic envoys and students sent to China, subsequently introducing the technology to Japan and advancing its domestic paper industry. The spread of papermaking to the Western Regions was facilitated by the Silk Road. During the Han Dynasty, close trade relations between the various states of the Western Regions and China enabled the transmission of papermaking technology as far as Persia in Central Asia. The Persians, in turn, disseminated it to Arab nations in West Asia. In 1150, Arabs established Europe’s first paper mill in Xàtiva, Spain, after which Italy, France, Germany, and other European countries successively built their own paper mills. Papermaking thereby provided an affordable and efficient medium for the dissemination of knowledge during the Renaissance.

The precursor to gunpowder lay in alchemical practices. The Tang dynasty text Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue (The Secret Formula of the Supreme Sacred Ancestor for Golden Elixirs) documented a formula for gunpowder, referring to it as “the medicine that catches fire.” By the 9th century, gunpowder began to be used for military purposes. The Song Dynasty established gunpowder workshops for the systematic production of weapons such as gunpowder arrows and fire lances, with the Southern Song’s “fire-emitting lance” marking the start of the age of firearm warfare. The Mongol Western Expeditions brought gunpowder to Europe, the militarization of which led to the disintegration of the European knightly class and the faster collapse of the feudal system. The use of gunpowder transformed the nature of warfare, and the firearm revolution ultimately became a direct catalyst for dynastic changes and power shifts.

From the stone rubbing techniques of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the woodblock printing in the Tang Dynasty, and particularly the movable type invented by Bi Sheng in the Song Dynasty, China’s printing innovations provided crucial conditions for the exchange of human knowledge and the formation of globalization. The spread of printing technology to the Korean Peninsula, Japan, Vietnam, and other regions fostered the “Chinese Character Cultural Sphere,” while its introduction to Europe helped advance educational and scientific progress. Hailed as the Mother of Civilization, printing has served as a vital lever for  advancement of world civilization and globalization.

The compass was the core technology of the Age of Navigation. China saw the prototype of artificially magnetized iron needles emerge during the Tang Dynasty, and by the Song Dynasty, magnetic needles were integrated with directional base plates and widely applied in maritime navigation. Pingzhou Ke Tan (Matters Worth Discussing from Pingzhou) from the Northern Song Dynasty documented the instance of compass navigation in overcast weather, representing the world’s earliest recorded use of the compass for sea travel. Maritime technology in the Song Dynasty further propelled the maritime trade between China and Southeast Asia, India, the Arab region, and East Africa, making Quanzhou and Guangzhou international ports. Wang Dayuan’s Daoyi Zhilüe (A Brief Account of Island Barbarians) from the Yuan Dynasty recorded trade routes extending as far as East Africa. By the late 12th century, the compass had been introduced to Europe, and it was with this Chinese navigational technology that Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama pioneered the route around the Cape of Good Hope. In 1492, Christopher Columbus’s transoceanic voyage, which led to the discovery of the New World, inaugurated the Age of Discovery in human history. The global dissemination of the compass reshaped the map of human exploration, facilitated cultural and trade exchange worldwide, and fostered a distinct maritime culture. Moreover, shipbuilding technology in the Song Dynasty was far ahead of the rest of the world. A Song sea vessel excavated in Quanzhou employed the watertight-bulkhead technology, exhibiting far superior anti-sinking capabilities compared to contemporary European ships. This technological advantage enabled Song merchant vessels to operate extensively throughout the Indian Ocean region. The watertight-bulkhead technique, documented in Mengxi Bitan （Dream Pool Essays）, was later recorded by Marco Polo and introduced to Venice, eventually becoming a standard feature in European shipbuilding.

The technological breakthroughs of ancient China were more than innovations in tools; they acted as catalysts for leaps in human civilization. The Four Great Inventions formed a technological chain linking Europe, Asia, and Africa, profoundly reshaping the world’s political, economic, and cultural landscape.

Trade Networks: From Silk Roads to Global Economic Interconnection 

The world’s earliest transcontinental network and large-scale maritime trade were initiated by China. In 138 BCE, Emperor Wu of Han dispatched Zhang Qian as an envoy to the Western Regions, thereby gradually establishing trade networks connecting China with Central Asia, Southeast Asia, West Asia, Africa, and even Europe.

China’s iron-casting technology spread to Central Asia via the Silk Road, enabling the development of iron smelting industries in states such as Dayuan. The Records of the Grand Historian: the Account of Dayuan documented that “upon obtaining gold and silver from the Han Empire, Dayuan invariably fashioned them into vessels, rather than using them as currency,” reflecting how metallurgical technology from China transformed the economic structures of the Western Regions. Chinese silk, tea, and particularly porcelain became star commodities within the systematic exchange network spanning Eurasia and Africa. In the 2nd century BCE, the ocean-going fleets dispatched by Emperor Wu of Han to the Indian Ocean inaugurated the maritime route from the South China Sea to the Indian Ocean, marking the emergence of the Maritime Silk Road. During the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He’s seven voyages launched the Asia-Africa navigation, bringing the Maritime Silk Road to its peak. This was followed by the “Zheng He Exchange,” through which Chinese silk, porcelain, tea, ironware, rice, silkworms, citrus, and other goods continuously flowed into Central Asia, South Asia, East Africa, and Europe, making China the ultimate producer and central market of the ancient global system. As Chinese commodities flooded international markets, China, in turn, absorbed foreign technologies and products with an openly receptive attitude.

The grand exchange of species and commodities facilitated by the Overland and Maritime Silk Roads directly promoted the global silver circulation and triggered the first wave of currency globalization. Copper coins and silk once served as “international currency” in East and Southeast Asia. The “Zhongtong notes” issued by the Yuan Dynasty constituted the world’s earliest pure paper currency system, with detailed records of its production and use in Marco Polo’s travelogue. By the late 13th century, Europe began emulating Chinese paper currency but failed to achieve widespread adoption due to the lack of a supporting credit system. The Ming Dynasty’s “Single Whip Law” commuted most taxes and labor obligations into silver payments and created an insatiable demand for silver that far exceeded domestic Chinese mining capacity. The Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine in Japan was one of the world’s largest silver producers in the 16th century. Through Chinese merchants and later the Portuguese, vast quantities of Japanese silver flowed into China in exchange for raw silk, silk fabrics, and porcelain. Silver mined by Spain from Potosí was shipped to Manila for trade with Chinese merchants, while another portion of American silver was transported to Spain and then used by European merchants to purchase Asian goods, ultimately flowing indirectly into China as well. Facing domestic silver shortages, the Ming Dynasty imported massive quantities of American silver through maritime trade, transforming silver into a systemic force that bound together various parts of the world. The flow of silver connected American mining, Asian manufacturing, and European finance and trade, forming the first genuine global economic cycle where no major economy could any longer operate in isolation. Thus, from the 16th to the 18th centuries, silver represented globalization. The core engine driving this global silver pump was precisely China’s enormous market demand and production capacity. Globalization was a long-term process initiated by Eastern production, demand, and trade networks.

Human Mobility: Globalization in Motion

Unlike the post-Age of Discovery pattern, where human movement primarily involved Europeans spreading across the world, the globalization centered around ancient China featured human flows directed more towards China. Particularly during the Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties, China stood as a civilization hub possessing robust cultural confidence and institutional inclusiveness, attracting substantial numbers of foreigners to settle, do business, and even serve as government officials. They not only contributed to China’s economic and cultural prosperity but also became vital bridges for exchanges between China and foreign civilizations.

The integration of diverse ethnic groups was facilitated by the Silk Road. The Sogdians, known as the “commercial people” of the Silk Road, established trade networks between Chang’an and Samarkand, with some even serving as officials in the Chinese imperial court. However, the An Lushan Rebellion during the Tang Dynasty exposed the risks inherent in globalization. An Lushan, of Sogdian-Turkic mixed heritage and raised in frontier markets, was fluent in “six non-Chinese languages,” able to have seamless communication with generals and merchants from Central Asia. He served as the military governor of three border regions — Fanyang, Pinglu, and Hedong. The Hebei region, under his jurisdiction, was a crucial nexus for Tang trade with Northeast Asia and Central Asia. This area teemed with foreign merchants, featuring mixed Han-Hu settlements, economic prosperity, and cultural amalgamation, yet remained relatively detached from the Confucian orthodoxy of the central Tang court. That An Lushan could amass the resources for rebellion was precisely because he controlled this conduit of the globalized economy. He commanded an elite army of 8,000 troops, composed of various non-Han ethnic groups such as the Tongluo, Khitan, and Shiwei. This force was bound not by ethnic identity but by personal loyalty and material incentives. The An Lushan Rebellion represented both a conflict between the Tang central authority and its periphery and a demonstration that while the Tang’s open policy successfully attracted foreign talent and wealth, its imperial governance model ultimately failed to fully adapt to and manage the complexities brought by globalization, revealing its inherent tensions and vulnerabilities as a globalized empire.

The movement and concentration of populations were also accelerated. Zhang Qian’s exploration of the Western Regions opened trade and cultural channels connecting East and West. Thereafter, Han dynasty envoys “were a common sight along the route,” with up to over ten missions travelling back and forth in a single year at peak times, or at least no fewer than five or six. The sizes of these missions ranged from several hundred members to just over a hundred. During the Tang, Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, Arab and Persian merchants arrived via the Maritime Silk Road at port cities such as Guangzhou, Quanzhou, and Yangzhou, transporting Chinese porcelain and silk to West Asia and Europe, and bringing back frankincense, myrrh, pearls, and ivory to China. From Chang’an and Luoyang to Dunhuang and Liangzhou, settlements of Sogdian merchants were established. In terms of cultural and religious dissemination, Chinese monks like Faxian and Xuanzang journeyed west to obtain Buddhist scriptures, while figures such as Kumarajiva and Marco Polo travelled eastward to China. Zheng He’s fleets carried not only soldiers and sailors but also translators, physicians, and artisans, with some crew members settling in Southeast Asia, becoming early overseas Chinese. As the world’s largest international metropolis at the time, Chang’an in the Tang Dynasty boasted a population exceeding one million. The city contained Persian residences, Sogdian quarters, and Nestorian churches (known as Daqin Temples), institutions that accommodated foreign envoys, merchants, monks, and students. The free dissemination of Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism, and Islam was permitted, their integration with the Central Plains culture forming the unique cosmopolitan vibrancy of the flourishing Tang period.

Foreigners were allowed to serve as officials in China. They could assume positions in the central or local governments through military merit, the imperial examinations, or recruitment based on special skills. Gao Xianzhi, a renowned military general of the Tang Dynasty, was of Goguryeo descent. His father, a Goguryeo general, had submitted to the Tang court. Gao Xianzhi later rose to the positions of Deputy Protector-General of Anxi and Military Commissioner of the Four Garrisons of Anxi, and once led troops on an expedition to Central Asia. Marco Polo, an Italian, who enjoyed the trust from Kublai Khan, the first emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, served in the Yuan court for 17 years. His Travels of Marco Polo greatly inspired immense European fascination with the East. Numerous Semu people, including Sogdians, Persians, and Arabs, took up important posts in the Yuan administration. The Ming Dynasty’s foreign policy shifted toward the “tributary system” and “maritime ban policies.” As a result, foreign activities in Ming China significantly declined, and non-natives no longer easily entered the core of the bureaucracy as they did during the Yuan Dynastry. Instead, their roles were largely confined to domains such as technological exchange, military advisory, imperial court services, and limited private trade. During the Ming and the early Qing periods, Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci, Johann Adam Schall von Bell, Johann Schreck, and Nicolas Longobardi entered the imperial court, contributing to tasks like calendar reform. Zheng He’s voyages brought back children from Southeast Asia, some of whom entered the palace as eunuchs. Those from Siam (modern-day Thailand), in particular, served as translators, attendants, and crucial intermediaries in tributary interactions between the Ming court and Southeast Asia.

One more key point deserves attention: the movement of populations, diseases began to spread across continents. For instance, the Antonine Plague, whose viral origins trace back to Central Asia, was transmitted to Rome via merchant caravans and armies traveling the Silk Road. In the 2nd century, after Roman Empire’s military forces suppressed a rebellion in Syria, they brought the plague back to Rome, leading to massive population loss and great damage to the empire’s economic and military strength. This event is considered one of the catalysts for Rome’s decline—an early globalization-driven catastrophe facilitated by Eurasian connectivity through the Silk Road. Another example is the Black Death. In the 14th century, the vast trade networks and dense postal relay systems of the Mongol Empire provided transmission channels for black rats and their fleas. This plague wiped out a significant portion of Europe’s population within years, triggering profound social, economic, and religious upheavals. Its rapid devastation across Eurasia and Africa was the most brutal yet objective evidence that the Eastern Hemisphere had already achieved a high degree of integration, forming a globalized Eastern system.

Cultural Communication and Civilization Sharing

Alongside the spread of material products such as technology, trade goods, and currency, Chinese culture radiated extensively to surrounding regions through the Overland and Maritime Silk Roads, forming a “civilization highland.” Simultaneously, it absorbed, integrated, and adapted foreign cultures, fostering innovation within Chinese civilization and the construction of a pluralistic and inclusive cultural world. Zhang Qian’s exploration of the Western Regions initiated the earliest exchange and sharing of Eastern and Western cultures in human history.

In ancient China, cultural elements like Chinese characters, Confucianism, and legal codes profoundly influenced neighboring areas, forming an East Asian cultural sphere centered on China, known as the “Chinese Character Cultural Sphere.” Chinese characters were introduced to the Korean Peninsula as early as the Warring States period to the Han Dynasty. During the 4th-5th centuries, the Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla kingdoms all adopted Chinese characters as their official script. King Sejong the Great of Korea later drew inspiration from the structure of Chinese characters to create Hangul. Chinese characters further spread to Japan via the Korean Peninsula. The Japanese adapted Chinese characters to create “Man’yōgana.” It later evolved into “Hiragana” and “Katakana,” yet Chinese characters remained a core component of Japanese written language, used in official documents, legal codes, and historical records. As early as the Qin and Han dynasties, Chinese characters were introduced to Vietnam and served as the official script until the 19th century, used in Vietnam’s imperial examinations, government documents, and literary classics. On this basis, its indigenous script “Chữ Nôm” was developed.

Confucian classics and Buddhist scriptures were extensively disseminated and embraced with the spread and adoption of Chinese characters across Southeast Asia. In 958, the Goryeo Dynasty introduced the imperial examination system and revered Confucianism, while the subsequent Joseon Dynasty established a policy of promoting Confucianism over Buddhism. In the 5th century, Wang In, a scholar-official from the Baekje Kingdom on the Korean Peninsula, traveled to Japan to teach Confucianism. In 604, Japan promulgated the Seventeen-Article Constitution, with multiple provisions directly quoting Confucian classics. The Tang Chinese monk Jianzhen, after six attempts, finally reached Nara, Japan, in 754. He brought with him authentic calligraphy works by Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi, Buddhist sutras, and a team skilled in architecture, sculpture, and medicine. The Golden Hall of Tōshōdai-ji Temple, which he oversaw, employed the most advanced architectural techniques of the Tang Dynasty and has been preserved intact through over a thousand years, being designated as a Japanese National Treasure. From the Han to the Tang dynasties, China established commanderies and counties in Vietnam for governance, and Confucianism served as the foundation of the bureaucratic system. The Ryukyu Kingdom accepted investiture from Ming China, introduced the Confucian education system, and constructed Confucius temples and academies.

China’s legal code system was also widely adopted across Southeast Asia. The Tang legal statutes were introduced to Japan through Japanese envoys to Tang China. In 701, Japan enacted the Taihō Code, modeled after the Tang Code, followed by the Yōrō Code in 718. Japan’s administrative structure also emulated the Tang system, implementing the Two Councils and Eight Ministries framework, with official ranks and penal codes closely following Tang models. In 11th-century Vietnam, the Lý Dynasty promulgated the Book of Penalties, while the Trần Dynasty established the National Penal Law in the 13th century, both reflecting Tang legal influence. During the Later Lê Dynasty, the Hồng Đức Legal Code was issued, drawing reference from both the Tang Code and Ming Code, institutionalizing Confucian ritual governance through explicit Ten Abominations clauses to safeguard imperial authority and family ethics. On the Korean Peninsula, the Unified Silla Kingdom adopted the Tang legal system. The Goryeo Dynasty’s Goryeo Code directly referenced the Tang Code, and the Joseon Dynasty’s Kyŏngguk Taejŏn (Great Code of Administration) continued this tradition of the Chinese legal system.

Chinese culture had a broad influence across East Asia as well, exemplified by the imperial examination system for official selection. Korea implemented the “Dokseo Sampumgwa” (the examination in the readings of texts in three gradations) during Unified Silla in 788, formally established the imperial examination system in 958, and maintained it for 936 years until 1894. Vietnam adopted the examination system starting from the Lý Dynasty in 1075, continuing for 844 years until its abolition by French colonists in 1919. Similarly, historiography, literature, and Chinese poetry composition became shared traditions among East Asian literati. Japanese Emperor Saga, Korean writer Ch'oe Ch'iwŏn, and Vietnamese poet Nguyễn Du all gained renown for their Chinese poetry. Confucian ethics, including filial piety, patriarchal systems, and family values, became common norms in East Asian societies. The dissemination of Chinese civilization promoted cultural development in surrounding regions, forming a cultural community with shared values, institutional frameworks, and writing systems.

While Chinese culture exerted systematic and comprehensive influence on East Asia, it also shaped the historical process of Europe, such as the Renaissance, the Age of Discovery, and the Reformation. These influences were primarily manifested in three categories. The first was technological inventions. The Four Great Inventions, Papermaking, Printing, the Compass, and Gunpowder, profoundly altered Europe’s historical and social trajectory. The second category was commodities and material culture. Silk, for instance, was not merely a commodity but a symbol of wealth and status. The massive outflow of gold to acquire silk became one of the forces driving Europe to seek new maritime routes. Likewise, Chinese porcelain, before the Portuguese opened direct sea routes in the 16th century, reached Europe via the Middle East in limited quantities, its value comparable to gold. This craft aesthetic stimulated European artisans to continually imitate, promoting the development of Europe’s porcelain manufacturing industry. Tea was introduced to Europe during the Ming Dynasty by maritime trade, passing through Southeast Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, and the East African coast. In 1607, Dutch ships first transported tea from Macau to Europe, marking the beginning of the direct tea trade between China and Europe. After its introduction, tea’s unique health benefits made it highly popular among consumers, not only changing European dietary habits but also fostering cultural exchange and integration between East and West, and spurring the rise of related industries such as tea processing, packaging, and transportation. The third category was ideological concepts. Prior to the 18th century, Chinese philosophical ideas were indirectly transmitted to Europe through intermediaries like Arabs and Mongols. This worked in tandem with the direct introduction of technological and material culture, forming a powerful Eastern force that promoted East-West intellectual dialogue, laying the groundwork for the 17th-18th century European trend of Chinoiserie and the admiration of China by Enlightenment thinkers.

While ancient China exported its own culture, it also actively absorbed foreign cultures and adapted them locally, forming an early globalized knowledge network. The first dimension was the blending of religion and thought. Buddhism, originating in India, entered China via the Silk Road towards the end of the Western Han Dynasty. The establishment of the White Horse Temple during the Eastern Han Dynasty marked Buddhism’s formal rooting in China. During the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties periods, Buddhist studies integrated with Neo-Daoist metaphysics, forming a unique speculative system. In the Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang journeyed west in search of Buddhist teachings, visiting 110 countries across Central Asia and India. He brought back 150 Buddhist sarira (relics), 7 Buddha statues, and 657 sutras and treatises—personally translated 75 works comprising 1,335 volumes—thereby completing the systematic introduction of Buddhist doctrine. Yijing traveled west by sea, returning not only with Vinaya texts but also with detailed records of the Buddhist customs in Southeast Asia and India he observed over more than two decades, as well as the shipping routes and trade in the South Seas. The rise of Chan (Zen) Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty fused Buddhist teachings with Confucian and Daoist thought, emerging as a local Chinese school out of conventional Buddhism, completing the transformation from “foreign appearances of India” to an Eastern aesthetic. The spread of Buddhism not only enriched philosophical thought but also spurred artistic forms such as the Dunhuang murals and Bianwen (transformation texts), deeply influencing Chinese perspectives on life and death, and aesthetics. Nestorianism and Islam were also introduced to China during the Tang Dynasty. The Nestorian Stele records Nestorian doctrines and activities. The establishment of early mosques such as the Qingjing Mosque in Quanzhou and the Huaisheng Mosque in Guangzhou marked the beginning of Islam’s localization in China.

The second dimension was the mutual exchange of material civilization. Following Zhang Qian’s missions to the Western Regions, grapes, alfalfa, walnuts, garlic, cucumbers, and other items were brought in via the Overland Silk Road. Alfalfa became an important fodder for horses during the Han and Tang dynasties. The establishment of the Muslim Medical Office in the Yuan Dynasty introduced Arabic pharmaceutical preparation techniques, expanding the treatment methods of Traditional Chinese Medicine.

The diverse fusion of arts and lifestyles represented the third dimension. The Han Dynasty Music Bureau incorporated music and dances from the Western Regions, with pieces like “Mahadoule” becoming part of the court repertoire. During the Tang Dynasty, the Sogdian Whirl Dance and the Zhezhi Dance were immensely popular in Chang’an. Chinese clothing and architecture were also deeply influenced, demonstrating exotic styles. After the reform of Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty, the “loose gowns and wide sashes” in Buddhist statues replaced the exposed Indian monastic robes. In Chang’an of the Tang Dynasty, attire from the Western Regions was in vogue. Women wore turned-collar, narrow-sleeved robes and exotic hats, showcasing an open atmosphere. In architecture, Suyab (located in present-day Kyrgyzstan), a Tang-era city, was modeled after Chang’an, becoming a template for urban planning in Central Asia. Dietary culture also became more international: foreign food shops in Chang’an offered Western Region delicacies like foreign pancakes and cheese, while Persian merchants ran taverns where foreign female entertainers played the pipa and performed songs and dances.

The final aspect was about the adaptation of technology and financial systems. During the Tang Dynasty, Indian medicine was introduced. Qianjin Yifang (A Supplement to Essential Formulas Worth a Thousand Gold), for instance, recorded the “Beisan Decoction,” a Persian medical formula used to treat Qi-related dysentery. The Yuan Dynasty court concurrently hosted Han Chinese, Arab, and Tubo (Tibetan) medical officials. The monumental medical work Huihui Yaofang (Huihui Prescriptions) systematically introduced Arabic medical theories, and Arabic medical substances like frankincense and myrrh became integral components of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Tang astronomers incorporated Indian astronomical calendars, introducing the zodiac into the Chinese calendar system. Guo Shoujing of the Yuan Dynasty, in compiling Shou Shi Li (the Season-Granting Calendar), drew upon achievements in Arabic astronomy. The Yuan capital, Dadu (present-day Beijing), established the Institute of Astronomical Observation and invited the renowned Arab astronomer Jamal al-Din to serve there, who brought with him Arab astronomical instruments. Commercial systems also innovated through assimilation. The Yuan-era “Ortaq merchants” (Central Asian Muslim traders) introduced Islamic commercial contract systems, promoting the standardization of cross-regional trade. There were two milestones in Sino-Western cross-cultural exchange. The first was the cultural influence of Zheng He’s maritime expeditions; the second was the great Eurasian exchange under the Mongol Empire. The Yuan territory, spanning Europe and Asia, facilitated direct dialogue between Eastern and Western cultures. The introduction of these foreign cultures was not a one-way transmission; rather, through localization and deep integration, they ultimately became organic components of Chinese civilization. The open and inclusive cultural DNA of Chinese culture shaped the diverse character of ancient China.

Institutional Innovation: Early Practices in Global Governance

The early maritime order was constructed through Zheng He’s voyages, which stood in stark contrast to the colonial and plunder-based maritime order established by Western powers during and after his time. Philosophically, Zheng He’s fleet upheld the political principle that “the king recognizes no outsiders and cherishes tender treatment toward distant peoples,” and acted not to conquer but to disseminate the Ming Dynasty’s virtuous prestige, establishing and maintaining an international political order centered on China. In economic terms, the Ming Dynasty adhered to the principle of “generous giving and modest receiving,” and utilized the tributary system featuring “bestowals” and “mutual trade” to lay the foundation of this order. The Ming Dynasty “bestowed” rewards, such as silk, coins, and porcelain, upon tributary states that far exceeded the value of their tribute offerings. The maritime order was not built through military aggression or resource plunder, but through deterrence, ensuring security, and punishing provocateurs. For instance, in Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka), Zheng He mediated conflicts between the local royalty and tribes. The fleet also established a standardized set of tributary rituals and trade procedures—foreign missions either accompanied the fleet or traveled independently to China and were allowed to conduct trade at designated Maritime Trade Supervisorates. The fleet meticulously charted the Zheng He Navigation Map, which recorded sailing directions, distances, ports, reefs, and more. Furthermore, they established a series of supply points and routes stretching from China to East Africa, creating a suite of “public goods” for maritime transportation throughout the Indian Ocean region. Behind its “generous” oceanic trade, the Ming tributary system actually established a political, economic, and trade network centered on China, laying the deep logic for early globalization. However, it must be noted that this “generous” approach placed a heavy burden on the Ming treasury, and it proved unsustainable to prioritize political prestige over economic benefit. The “tender treatment” political doctrine did not extend to unofficial engagement, and private overseas trade and expansion were discouraged. Later, as internal Ming politics turned conservative, the policy of maritime expeditions was halted. The maritime order constructed by Zheng He’s voyages demonstrated the possibility of building international relations based on peace, virtuous governance, and mutually beneficial trade. It stands as historical proof that, besides hegemony and conquest, there has existed another magnificent practice for constructing world order.

The economic paradigms for global governance were pioneered. The Song Dynasty established a sophisticated international trade management system comprising gongping (maritime expedition permits), choujie (tariff collection), and bomai (government priority acquisition). A bigger breakthrough occurred that Song currency, with stable currency value and wide circulation, became hard currency in Southeast Asia, Japan, and other regions. This monetary dominance was not achieved through coercion but arose naturally from the formation of a China-centered Asian economic circle. The “state trading depots” system established by Zheng He’s fleet in the Indian Ocean can be regarded as ancient free trade zones. In Calicut (current Kozhikode, India), the Ming Dynasty set up a Maritime Trade Supervisorate to formulate unified trade rules, including commodity pricing and dispute arbitration. This institutional innovation liberated the Indian Ocean trade from the disorder of pirate raids. Thus, the institutional innovations of ancient China pioneered economic governance models for globalization.

Institutional innovations of ancient China were also of global significance. The imperial examination system, with its philosophy of “making appointments on merit,” became a model for fair talent selection worldwide. The Qin Dynasty’s comprehensive implementation of the commandery-county system enabled direct central control over localities, establishing the foundation for unified state governance and providing a reference for the administrative hierarchy of modern nation-states. Its centralization of authority was also emulated by many countries to strengthen state governance capacity. The hierarchical diplomatic network centered around China operated through “investiture-tribute” relations and maintained regional peace by “virtuous influence” rather than military conquest, constructing a long-term stable international order framework in East Asia. This offers a historical paradigm for soft power and regional cooperation in modern international relations. The integration of rule of law and ritual propriety formed a governance philosophy of “virtue supplemented by punishment.” In frontier governance, the Han Dynasty’s garrison farming system combined military defense with economic development, offering a compatible approach for governing multi-ethnic empires. Documentary administration and the postal relay system, such as the official document transmission and postal network established in the Han Dynasty, ensured the smooth implementation of government decrees and formed an efficient information management system. It was later disseminated to Persia and India through the Mongol Empire, promoting a communications revolution across Eurasia. The institutional innovations of ancient China extended beyond the technical level to their governance philosophy, such as the “tianxia (all-under-heaven) concept,” an inclusive idea that transcends nation-state boundaries and resonates spiritually with the contemporary global governance vision of a “community with a shared future for mankind.” Principles like “balancing leniency with severity” and “combining centralization and decentralization” provide wisdom for modern states in handling central-local relations and the balance between stability and change. The historical radiation of ancient China’s institutional innovations demonstrates that Chinese governance experience was once a significant participant and contributor to the evolution of global governance civilization.

Conclusion

Globalization is not a linear process commencing solely from 1492, but a dynamic, multi-stage historical process shaped collectively by diverse civilizations. It evolved from local interactions into a global network of interdependence. The first wave of globalization set sail from the East, with China playing a pivotal and pioneering role. Ancient China constructed a global knowledge network through technological exports, shaped economic linkages through trade, propelled the expansion of global networks through population mobility, formed an East Asian civilization community through cultural influence, and provided the earliest paradigm for global governance through institutional innovation. More importantly, it pioneered a non-colonial, non-hegemonic path to globalization, offering a highly relevant historical case for contemporary global governance. The second wave of globalization was initiated by Western maritime exploration, which incorporated the Americas and Oceania into the global system, thereby completing worldwide connectivity. The “Zheng He Exchange” and the “Columbus Exchange” together constituted the early forms of globalization. The modern Industrial Revolution and colonial expansion established a West-dominated globalization framework, during which China receded from the center, shifting from an active leader to a passive participant. Following World War II, the establishment of the international monetary system and organizations like the United Nations provided a basic institutional framework for globalization, allowing China to reintegrate and progressively return to a central position on the world stage.

Thus, globalization set sail from the East, with ancient China being the dominant force and center of early globalization. The Western Age of Discovery essentially entailed entering this long-existing world system and, by extending its reach to the Americas and Oceania, inaugurated a new phase of globalization.

(The author is Chairman of China Institute for Innovation & Development Strategy, and former Vice President of Party School of the CPC Central Committee.)